Psychology of Music recent issues

Editorial

MacDonald, R. — 2008-07-01

Investigating the role of psychoticism and sensation seeking in predicting emotional reactions to music

Rawlings, D., Leow, S. H. — 2008-07-01

Recent studies have examined reactions to music within the framework of the circumplex model of emotion. The present study employed questionnaire measures of psychoticism (P) and impulsive sensation seeking (ISS) to explore the relationship between personality and reactions to music selected to produce the emotions in the quadrants of the circumplex. The 65 female and 27 male undergraduate students listened to four excerpts of music representing each of the four quadrants, with music in each quadrant selected to reflect classical/contemporary and familiar/unfamiliar distinctions. Participants rated each excerpt with respect to liking, familiarity, pleasantness and arousal potential, and on seven pairs of emotion-related adjectives. P was associated with the tendency to enjoy music that was unsettling and boring: that is, in the `unpleasant' half of the circumplex. P was also linked with negative emotional responses to music that was relaxing and exciting: that is, in the `pleasant' half of the circumplex. There were few significant correlations with ISS, although high scorers reported being sadder, and less happy, than low scorers when listening to relaxing/peaceful music. The results provided general support to previous studies relating psychoticism to liking for music sometimes characterized as `problem' or `deviant'.

Comparative effects of music and recalled life-events on emotional state

Konecni, V. J., Brown, A., Wanic, R. A. — 2008-07-01

Several classical issues in the area of music and emotion were investigated in a 3 x 3 x 2 x 2 x 4 experiment (N =144). Participants recalled happy, neutral, or sad life-events, and they listened to happy, neutral, or sad music, in one of two orders of recall and listening. Four dependent measures were obtained: Own emotional state at the time that the recalled event originally occurred (ETHEN) and immediately after recall (ENOW); own emotional state after listening to music (IEM) and a rating of the emotional expressiveness of the music (EDEM), with the order of IEM and EDEM counterbalanced. All measures were on a 13-point happy—sad scale. The main, statistically highly significant, findings were: (a) the ETHEN ratings were more extreme on both the happy and sad tasks than the ENOW and IEM ratings; (b) the ENOW scores were more extreme than the IEM ones, but only on the sad task; (c) the EDEM ratings were more extreme than the IEM ones; (d) the IEM ratings were nevertheless different from the scale midpoint, especially when the participants listened to music before recalling events. The pattern of results and complex methodological issues cast considerable doubt on the idea of a direct causal link between music and emotion. It was also proposed that the notion of `musical emotions' be replaced by the concepts of `being moved' and `aesthetic awe'.

Musical expression: an observational study of instrumental teaching

Karlsson, J., Juslin, P. N. — 2008-07-01

Research has shown that both music students and teachers think that expression is important. Yet, we know little about how expression is taught to students. Such knowledge is needed in order to enhance teaching of expression. The aim of this study was thus to explore the nature of instrumental music teaching in its natural context, with a focus on expression and emotion. Lessons featuring five music teachers and 12 students were video-filmed, transcribed, content analyzed, and coded into categories of feedback and language use. Results suggested that the focus of teaching was mainly on technique and on the written score. Lessons were dominated by talk, with the teacher doing most of the talking. Issues concerning expression and emotion were mostly dealt with implicitly rather than explicitly, although some teachers used a variety of strategies to enhance expression. Although there were individual differences among teachers, a common feature was the lack of clear goals, specific tasks, and systematic teaching patterns.

Negotiating transitions in musical development: the role of psychological characteristics of developing excellence

MacNamara, A., Holmes, P., Collins, D. — 2008-07-01

The challenges of developing potential to achieve high-level performance in music are considerable. Furthermore, research is increasingly emphasizing the multidimensional and dynamic construction of talent, along with an awareness of the central role of psycho-behavioural factors in the realization of potential. Moreover, in order to achieve success, developing musicians must negotiate key transitions between stages of development. In order to investigate these various challenges, world-class musicians were purposefully sampled and interviewed about their development in music. Subsequently, key transitions within their career, as well as the skills and characteristics needed to negotiate these transitions, were identified. Results suggest that the ability to negotiate transitions between stages of development is mediated by the development and employment of a range of psychological characteristics of developing excellence (PCDEs). These PCDEs appear similar to those employed in other performance domains and support increasing empirical evidence of the development of psycho-behavioural characteristics as a core feature of talent development processes.

The effects of musical training on verbal memory

2008-07-01

A number of studies suggest a link between musical training and general cognitive abilities. Despite some positive results, there is disagreement about which abilities are improved. One line of research leads to the hypothesis that verbal abilities in general, and verbal memory in particular, are related to musical training. In the present article, we review this line of research and present newly collected data comparing trained musicians to non-musicians on a number of tasks that recruit verbal memory. The results showed an advantage for musicians' long-term verbal memory that disappeared when articulatory suppression was introduced. In addition, we found evidence for a greater verbal working memory span in musicians. Together, these results show that musical training may influence verbal working memory and long-term memory, and they suggest that these improved abilities are due to enhanced verbal rehearsal mechanisms in musicians.

Review article: D. HURON, Sweet Anticipation: Music and the Psychology of Expectation. Cambridge, MA: The MIT Press (A Bradford Book), 2006. 476 pp, 108 illus. ISBN 0--262--08345--0 (hbk) $40/{pound}25.95

Ockelford, A. — 2008-07-01

Book review: ANDREAS C. LEHMANN, JOHN A. SLOBODA and ROBERT H. WOODY, Psychology for Musicians: Understanding and Acquiring the Skills. New York: Oxford University Press, 2007. 268 pp. ISBN 9780195146103

Creech, A. — 2008-07-01

Book review: ROBERT WALKER, Music Education: Cultural Values, Social Change and Innovation. Springfield, IL: Charles C. Thomas, 2007. 321 pp. ISBN 9780398077266 (hbk) $69.95

Plummeridge, C. — 2008-07-01

Recent reviewers for Psychology of Music

2008-07-01

Silent illumination: a study on Chan (Zen) meditation, anxiety, and musical performance quality

Lin, P., Chang, J., Zemon, V., Midlarsky, E. — 2008-03-19

This study investigated the effects of Chan (Zen) meditation on musical performance anxiety and musical performance quality. Nineteen participants were recruited from music conservatories and randomly assigned to either an eight-week meditation group or a wait-list control group. After the intervention, all participants performed in a public concert. Outcome measures were performance anxiety and musical performance quality. Meditation practiced over a short term did not significantly improve musical performance quality. The control group demonstrated a significant decrease in performance quality with increases in performance anxiety. The meditation group demonstrated the opposite effect — a positive linear relation between performance quality and performance anxiety. This finding indicates that enhanced concentration and mindfulness (silent illumination), cultivated by Chan practice, might enable one to channel performance anxiety to improve musical performance.

Using music to cue autobiographical memories of different lifetime periods

Cady, E. T., Harris, R. J., Knappenberger, J. B. — 2008-03-19

Little previous research has examined the link between popular music and autobiographical memory. College-age participants recalled a memory associated with a song from each of five lifetime eras and then described and rated the memories. Participants heard part of the song, read the lyrics, saw a picture of the artist or began describing their memory immediately. Ratings for vividness, specificity, feeling brought back and feeling emotional in connection with the memory were all significantly different across lifetime eras. Differences also existed between sensory conditions in memory description length, feeling brought back and feeling emotional. However, hearing the song did not produce higher ratings than all the other sensory conditions. These findings show that music is a valuable cue to evoke autobiographical memory.

The effects of varying ratios of physical and mental practice, and task difficulty on performance of a tonal pattern

Cahn, D. — 2008-03-19

Sixty undergraduate students who had completed at least one semester of jazz improvisation were assigned to either: (a) physical practice (PP); (b) mental practice (MP); (c) combined 66 percent PP and 33 percent MP (66%PP:33%MP); and (d) combined 33 percent PP and 66 percent MP (33%PP:66%MP) groups. Subjects were to perform a 3—1—7—5 tonal pattern over two difficulty levels of chord progressions. A pre-test, a three-minute practice session, and a post-test were performed for each progression. ANCOVA results revealed significant interaction between groups and task difficulty. Post-hoc t-test revealed superior results for both MP and 33%PP:66%MP on the easy task compared with the hard task. The four groups were collapsed into two groups: (a) PP and 66%PP:33%MP, both high in percentage of PP (HPP); and (b) MP and 33%PP:66%MP, both high in percentage of MP (HMP). Post-hoc t-test revealed a significantly superior performance of the HPP to that of the HMP on the hard task.

Young adolescents' usage of narrative functions of media music by manipulation of musical expression

Wingstedt, J., Brandstrom, S., Berg, J. — 2008-03-19

This study investigates usage and knowledge of musical narrative functions in contemporary multimedia. A group of young adolescents were given the task of adapting musical expression, using the non-verbal research tool REMUPP, to fit different visual scenes shown on a computer screen. This was accomplished by manipulating seven musical parameters: instrumentation, tempo, harmonic complexity, rhythmic complexity, register, articulation and reverb. They also answered a questionnaire giving information about their musical training and media habits. Numerical data from the manipulation of the musical parameters were analysed to search for tendencies within the group with regard to the musical expression in relation to the different visual scenes shown. The results showed a large degree of in-group consensus regarding narrative functions of music, indicating knowledge about musical narrative codes and conventions. Also, the results were clearly influenced by factors such as the participants' musical training, gender and habits of music listening, playing computer games and watching movies — highlighting the complexity of learning and pointing to the impact of the increasing availability of narrative media on our attitudes and knowledge.

One-to-one tuition in a conservatoire: the perceptions of instrumental and vocal teachers

Gaunt, H. — 2008-03-19

One-to-one instrumental/vocal tuition forms a core part of the professional education offered to undergraduate and postgraduate music students in a conservatoire. However, whilst anecdotal evidence is plentiful, there is little research underpinning its practices. This article provides an analysis of the perceptions of 20 principal study teachers in a conservatoire in the UK about one-to-one tuition, its aims, processes and context. Findings emphasized the isolation of these teachers in their practice, and suggested that this might be problematic particularly given the intensity and complexity of the relationships formed between teacher and student. Furthermore, tension was evident between teachers' aspirations of facilitating student autonomy and self-confidence in learning and the processes of teaching they described, where the transmission of technical and musical skills, largely through teacher-led reflection-inaction, was often paramount. In this context, the dynamics of power invested in the one-to-one relationship suggested that whilst the potential of detailed shared reflection-in-action in one-to-one tuition was great, the relationship could also inhibit the development of self-responsibility and of an individual artistic voice, both of which were so prized by the teachers.

Music and well-being in long-term hospitalized children

Longhi, E., Pickett, N. — 2008-03-19

The aim of this study was to investigate the physiological responses of long-term hospitalized children when exposed to live music. Twenty-one paediatric patients at Great Ormond Street Children's Hospital, London, between 3 months and 14 years of age, took part in the study. They were all long-term patients with cardiac and/or respiratory problems. They received music sessions for about 30 minutes, according to the child's state, during which a musician sang and played guitar. The children's physiological responses were measured with a pulse oximeter and their oxygen saturation level as well as their heart rate recorded before and after the music session. The analysis of the data showed that during the music sessions, the children's heart rate did not change significantly. However, when their oxygen saturation level was examined, a different picture emerged. In fact, the percentage of oxygen present in the blood increased significantly by the end of the music session. This suggests that music has an effect on the state of paediatric patients, potentially improving their physiological and psychological well-being.

Book review: DAVID COPE, Computer Models of Musical Creativity. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press, 2005. 384 pp. (excluding appendices and index). ISBN --262--03338--0 (pbk) {pound}24.55

Seddon, F. A. — 2008-03-19

Book review: D.J. LEVITIN, This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York: Dutton, 2006. 314 pp. ISBN 0--525--94969 (hbk) $24.95; 0--45--228852--5 (pbk) $15.00

Lammers, M., Kruger, M. — 2008-03-19

Book review: ANNE DANIELSEN, Presence and Pleasure: The Funk Grooves of James Brown and Parliament. Middleton, CT: Wesleyan University Press, 2006. 280 pp. ISBN 0--8195--6822--8 (hbk) $65; 0--8195--6823--6 (pbk) $24.95

Chor, I. — 2008-03-19

Editorial

Hallam, S. — 2008-01-11

Instrumental students' strategies for finding interpretations: complexity and individual variety

Hultberg, C. — 2008-01-11

In this article, a qualitative, collaborative study on two students' preparation of public performances of guitar duos is presented. A cultural-psychological perspective was used, and data were collected in natural settings. Participants' processes of finding interpretations are characterized by complex strategies, based on individual familiarity with conventions of expressions. Participants negotiate with each other, the composer and the tradition. Individually diverging initial strategies are identified. Mainly tradition-based learning is related to preferences for playing continuously in order to grasp the main character of the music, and solving problems when these turn up. Mainly `western' learning is related to preferences for reading the printed score to get an overview of musical structure and character, and solving technical problems before starting to play continuously. From a long-term perspective, awareness of individually diverging preferences helps participants develop their own strategies, recognize pupils' strategies and preferences, and adapt their teaching to these.

Modelling the relationships between emotional responses to, and musical content of, music therapy improvisations

2008-01-11

This article reports a study in which listeners were asked to provide continuous ratings of perceived emotional content of clinical music therapy improvisations. Participants were presented with 20 short excerpts of music therapy improvisations, and had to rate perceived activity, pleasantness and strength using a computer-based slider interface. A total of nine musical features relating to various aspects of the music (timing, register, dynamics, tonality, pulse clarity and sensory dissonance) were extracted from the excerpts, and relationships between these features and participants' emotion ratings were investigated. The data were analysed in three stages. First, inter-dimension correlations revealed that ratings of activity and pleasantness were moderately negatively correlated, activity and strength were strongly positively correlated, and strength and pleasantness were moderately negatively correlated. Second, a series of cross-correlation analyses revealed that the temporal lag between musical features and listeners' dimension ratings differed across both variables and dimensions. Finally, a series of linear regression analyses produced significant feature prediction models for each of the three dimensions, accounting for 80 percent (activity), 57 percent (pleasantness ) and 84 percent (strength) of the variance in participants' ratings. Activity was best predicted by high note density and high pulse clarity, pleasantness by low note density and high tonal clarity, and strength by high mean velocity and low note density. The results are discussed in terms of their fit with other work reported in the music psychology literature, and their relevance to clinical music therapy research and practice.

Memory and metamemory for songs: the relative effectiveness of titles, lyrics, and melodies as cues for each other

Peynircioglu, Z. F., Rabinovitz, B. E., Thompson, J. L.W. — 2008-01-11

We explored semantic memory and feeling of knowing (FOK) for titles, lyrics, and melodies of songs as well as the effectiveness of these three components as cues for each other. Melodies and titles were recalled equally well and better than lyrics, but lyrics were the better cue for both. Lyrics were also better cues for titles or melodies than vice versa. When recall failed, lyrics were given the higher FOK ratings, especially with the melody cues. In addition, titles elicited stronger FOKs for lyrics, melodies elicited stronger FOKs for lyrics, and titles elicited stronger FOKs for melodies than vice versa. Accuracy data also showed asymmetries between these three components. In addition, in recall, lyrics cued subsequent lyrics and melodies cued subsequent melodies, although melodies elicited stronger FOKs than did lyrics. Possible explanations for the findings are discussed.

Memorization by a jazz musician: a case study

Noice, H., Jeffrey, J., Noice, T., Chaffin, R. — 2008-01-11

To investigate the memory strategies of jazz musicians, we videotaped an experienced jazz pianist as he learned a new bebop piece. He had not previously heard a recording of the selection, nor had he seen the written music. The pianist provided detailed reports of the musical structure and the types of cues he used as landmarks to guide his memorization. Analysis of the videotapes, verbal reports, and multiple annotated copies of the music revealed that this jazz pianist's learning process was similar to that reported for classical musicians. That is, he used the musical structure as a retrieval scheme and practiced using performance cues to elicit knowledge of upcoming passages from long-term memory. However, this study looked only at the learning strategy for the note-by-note renditions that typically comprise the first choruses of jazz performances. The relationship between this original memorization process and the ability to improvise subsequent choruses will have to be addressed in future investigations.

An investigation of conductors' temporal gestures and conductor musician synchronization, and a first experiment

Luck, G., Nte, S. — 2008-01-11

This article reports an empirical investigation into the characteristics of conductors' temporal gestures and people's ability to synchronize with them. It describes a new approach to the investigation of the characteristics of conductors' gestures, the investigation of conductor—musician synchronization, and a first experiment to demonstrate the feasibility of the approach. As part of this approach, a new computer-based environment for manipulating and presenting conductors' gestures, and recording participants' responses, was developed. This involved the creation of several pieces of new software, all of which were developed under Microsoft^® Windows^® using Visual C++. Used in combination, these programs allowed: (1) the manipulation of the size and viewing angle of high-quality three-dimensional (3D) recordings of conductors' gestures; (2) the presentation of these gestures to participants in a controlled experimental setting; (3) the recording of participants' temporal responses to these gestures; (4) the calculation of various parameters of both the trajectory of the gestures (e.g. instantaneous speed, radius of curvature along the trajectory) and participants' responses (e.g. mean response point and associated standard deviation); and (5) the graphical display of relevant features of both the gestures and participants' responses in a clear visual form. In the experiment, participants tapped in time with simple conducting gestures while several factors that might be expected to affect synchronization accuracy were manipulated. These factors were (1) the radius of curvature with which the beat was defined; (2) the experience level of the conductor; and (3) the experience level of participants. Results indicated that only participants' previous experience affected their synchronization ability; no effects of conductors' previous experience, or radius of curvature with which the beat was defined were found. This first experiment successfully demonstrated the feasibility of the new approach for the investigation of conductors' gestures and conductor— musician synchronization, and this article concludes by suggesting a number of subsequent experiments that could be undertaken in this computer-based environment to investigate these topics further.

Using music to induce emotions: Influences of musical preference and absorption

Kreutz, G., Ott, U., Teichmann, D., Osawa, P., Vaitl, D. — 2008-01-11

The present research addresses the induction of emotion during music listening in adults using categorical and dimensional theories of emotion as background. It further explores the influences of musical preference and absorption trait on induced emotion. Twenty-five excerpts of classical music representing `happiness', `sadness', `fear', `anger' and `peace' were presented individually to 99 adult participants. Participants rated the intensity of felt emotions as well as the pleasantness and arousal induced by each excerpt. Mean intensity ratings of target emotions were highest for 20 out of 25 excerpts. Pleasantness and arousal ratings led to three main clusters within the two-dimensional circumplex space. Preference for classical music significantly influenced specificity and intensity ratings across categories. Absorption trait significantly correlated with arousal ratings only. In sum, instrumental music appears effective for the induction of basic emotions in adult listeners. However, careful screening of participants in terms of their musical preferences should be mandatory.

Book review: DENISE GROCKE and TONY WIGRAM, Receptive Methods in Music Therapy: Techniques and Clinical Applications for Music Therapy Clinicians, Educators and Students. London: Jessica Kingsley, 2007. 288 pp. ISBN 9781843104131 (pbk) {pound}19.99/$34.95

Bunt, L. — 2008-01-11

Book review: BERNARR RAINBOW with GORDON COX, Music in Educational Thought and Practice. Woodbridge: Boydell Press, 2006. 448 pp. ISBN 1843832135 (hbk) {pound}30.00/$55.00

Hewitt, A. — 2008-01-11

The prevalence and nature of imagined music in the everyday lives of music students

Bailes, F. — 2007-10-17

`Musical imagery' is the experience of imagining music in the `mind's ear'. A study was conducted to explore the prevalence and nature of musical imagery for music students in everyday life, using experience-sampling methods (ESM). As a group, music students reported that imagining music was a very frequent form of musical experience. Participants reported individual variation in their imagery experience but also common differences between the strength of imagery for different musical dimensions. For instance, melody and lyrics were rated as being more vivid components of the image than timbre and expression. Another clear pattern was the influence of hearing music on musical imagination, one indicator being that 58 percent of sampled episodes described having heard or performed the music recently as a possible reason for currently imagining it.

An exploratory survey of in-vehicle music listening

Dibben, N., Williamson, V. J. — 2007-10-17

Listening to music whilst driving is a common activity, with a number of potentially positive and negative influences on driving performance and safety: previous research suggests that music is a source of distraction and can influence driver mood, with subsequent effects on driving behaviour. However, little systematic evidence exists about the extent or type of in-vehicle listening practices in real-world contexts, and their effect on driving performance. A survey was carried out to discover the extent to which people listen to music while driving, what they are listening to and why, and whether there is any association with driving safety, measured by possession of four or more years' no-claims on motor insurance. The survey of 1780 British drivers reveals that approximately two-thirds listen to recorded music and music radio while driving, with music reported to be less distracting than conversation. The most commonly cited reasons for listening to music while driving were its benefits for relaxation and concentration. The survey indicates associations between possession of `no claims' on motor insurance and a preference for silence. However, the genre of music playing also appears to influence driving performance: there is an association between possession of no-claims, genre of music, and a difference in the frequency with which certain genres were playing at the time of the last accident, relative to the expected norm for that genre. These findings support evidence for music as a source of in-vehicle distraction, which can have both positive and negative effects on driving performance.

The dynamics of ensemble: the case for flamenco

Maduell, M., Wing, A. M. — 2007-10-17

We provide behavioural and quantitative analyses of coordination and synchronization in ensemble performance, using flamenco as a case study. The concept of ensemble is introduced and developed with the aid of connected network models, then applied to the flamenco ensemble. Flamenco performance is described in terms of ensemble interaction, including both the types of rhythmical accompaniment used by the individual classes of performer participating in the ensemble and the main sociocultural factors governing control of rhythm and cuing changes. These factors involve hierarchies relating to the degree to which each performer commands audience attention (focus) and the status of ensemble members within the company. We describe an observational approach to ensemble coordination with an event-based video analysis of a four-member ensemble performing a flamenco piece and a correlation-based motion analysis of two-person performance of simple rhythm.

Children's judgements of emotion in song

Bruce Morton, J., Trehub, S. E. — 2007-10-17

Songs convey emotion by means of expressive performance cues (e.g. pitch level, tempo, vocal tone) and lyrics. Although children can interpret both types of cues, it is unclear whether they would focus on performance cues or salient verbal cues when judging the feelings of a singer. To investigate this question, we had 5- to 10-year-old children and adults listen to song fragments that combined emotive performance cues with meaningless syllables or with lyrics that had emotional implications. In both cases, listeners were asked to judge the singer's feelings from the sound of her voice. In the context of meaningless lyrics, children and adults successfully judged the singer's feelings from performance cues. When the lyrics were emotive, adults reliably judged the singer's feelings from performance cues, but children based their judgements on the lyrics. These findings have implications for children's interpretation of vocal emotion in general and sung performances in particular.

Understanding the ensemble pianist: a theoretical framework

Kokotsaki, D. — 2007-10-17

The aim of this study was to develop a theoretical model of the attainment of high quality in musical ensemble performance as perceived by the pianist and to identify the factors affecting this process. The research has followed an inductive interpretative approach, applying qualitative methods. The analytic material was collected through the process of interviewing and analysed following grounded theory procedures and techniques. The analysis of the data allowed five categories to emerge, namely, searching for balance, externalization of attention, regulating, time availability and achieving integration, which mainly reflected the pianists' thoughts and concerns about their participation in ensemble music-making in relation to the co-performers' co-action as they collectively attempt to reach for high quality in musical ensemble performance. The five categories were eventually brought together in an integrative model to propose elements of a theory of the attainment of high quality in musical ensemble performance from the pianist's point of view. This article will present the emergent theoretical framework, together with an account of the methodological process followed.

Book review: SUSAN HALLAM, Music Psychology in Education, Bedford Way Papers No. 25. London: Institute of Education, 2006. 281pp. ISBN 0854737162 (pbk) {pound}17.99

Ginsborg, J. — 2007-10-17

Book review: M.H. THAUT, Rhythm, Music, and the Brain: Scientific Foundations and Clinical Applications, Studies on New Music Research, 7. New York: Taylor & Francis, 2005. Translation of the book is available in Japanese, with translations in progress for Chinese, German, and Korean editions. ISBN 0415973708 (hbk) $95.00

Lesiuk, T. — 2007-10-17